Bupivacaine

Bupivacaine is a potent local anesthetic and sodium channel blocker used for local infiltration, nerve block, epidural, and intrathecal anesthesia. It significantly reduces cell viability and induces apoptosis. It also stimulates the production of ROS and activates MAPK pathways, which increases the expression of WDR35 in mouse neuroblastoma Neuro2a cells. It also activates NF-κB and c-Jun/AP-1 signalling pathways in Neuro2a cells.